Current Prospects in Rheumatoid Arthritis: Pathophysiology, Genetics, and Treatments

  • Authors: Khan S.1, Mohan K.2, Muzammil S.3, Alam M.4, Khayyam K.5
  • Affiliations:
    1. Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Jamia Hamdard university
    2. Department of Biosciences, Division of Clinical Research, School of Basic and Applied Sciences, Galgotias University
    3. Department of Physiology, Faculty of Dentistry,, Jamia Millia Islamia Univeristy
    4. Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutics, School of Medical and Allied Sciences,, Galgotias University
    5. Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, National Institute of TB and Respiratory Diseases
  • Issue: Vol 19, No 1 (2024)
  • Pages: 36-55
  • Section: Medicine
  • URL: https://rjonco.com/2772-4344/article/view/644482
  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.2174/2772434418666230406083149
  • ID: 644482

Cite item

Full Text

Abstract

An autoimmune inflammatory disease, rheumatoid arthritis (RA), predominantly affects the synovium joint lining, augmenting disability, early mortality, and socioeconomic difficulty. Therefore, current updates on pharmacological therapies are crucial for developing drugs to treat the disease at each stage. This review attempts to compile a thorough analysis of current developments in our knowledge of RA pathogenesis and diseasemodifying drugs, with the aim of providing insights for next-generation RA therapeutics. According to the literature, the most successful drugs for treatment techniques described so far in this area include (cs) DMARDs (sub-class of disease modifying anti-rheumatic drugs DMARDs), tsDMARDS (targeted synthetic DMARDS), and bDMARDs (biological DMARDs). However, current pharmacologic therapy consisting of biological, conventional, and potentially viable small molecule DMARDs remains the cornerstone of rheumatoid arthritis treatment with which significant progress toward disease remission has been accomplished. The pathobiology of RA involves cytokine messengers such as B and T-cells, and an intricate interplay of pro-inflammatory cytokines responsible for activating and developing effector cells, in turn, accountable for local disease and systemic symptoms. Despite the fact that the cause of rheumatoid arthritis is not known, new treatments have been created as a result of better approaches towards the biology of the disease. As they target molecules directly implicated in the genesis of rheumatoid arthritis, these drugs may be more effective, targeted, and less harmful in the short and long term than standard therapies.

About the authors

Shoaib Khan

Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Jamia Hamdard university

Email: info@benthamscience.net

Krishna Mohan

Department of Biosciences, Division of Clinical Research, School of Basic and Applied Sciences, Galgotias University

Email: info@benthamscience.net

Sazina Muzammil

Department of Physiology, Faculty of Dentistry,, Jamia Millia Islamia Univeristy

Email: info@benthamscience.net

Md. Alam

Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutics, School of Medical and Allied Sciences,, Galgotias University

Author for correspondence.
Email: info@benthamscience.net

Khalid Khayyam

Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, National Institute of TB and Respiratory Diseases

Email: info@benthamscience.net

References

  1. Neogi T, Felson D. Osteoarthritis and Rheumatoid Arthritis. (6th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Wall & Melzack’s Textbook of Pain 2013; pp. 645-57.
  2. Almutairi K, Nossent J, Preen D, Keen H, Inderjeeth C. The global prevalence of rheumatoid arthritis: A meta-analysis based on a systematic review. Rheumatol Int 2021; 41(5): 863-77. doi: 10.1007/s00296-020-04731-0 PMID: 33175207
  3. Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME) Findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study Available from: https://www.healthdata.org/sites/default/files/files/policy_report/2019/GBD_2017_Booklet.pdf
  4. Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME)The Global Burden of Disease: Generating Evidence,Guiding policy. Available from : https://www.healthdata.org/sites/default/files/files/policy_report/2013/GBD_GeneratingEvidence/IHME_GBD_GeneratingEvidence_FullReport.pdf
  5. Scott DL, Wolfe F, Huizinga TWJ. Rheumatoid arthritis. Lancet 2010; 376(9746): 1094-108. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60826-4 PMID: 20870100
  6. Chopra A, Ghorpade R, Sarmukkadam S, et al. 5 Million Patients and Not 0.34% Is Worrisome: Burden of Rheumatoid Arthritis in India Based On a Bone and Joint Decade India Community Oriented Program for Control of Rheumatic Disease. ACR/ARHP Annual Meeting. 2012 Nov 09-14; Washington DC, USA. 2012.
  7. Rivellese F, Rossi FW, Galdiero MR, Pitzalis C, de Paulis A. Mast cells in early rheumatoid arthritis. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20(8): 2040. doi: 10.3390/ijms20082040 PMID: 31027208
  8. McInnes IB, Schett G. Pathogenetic insights from the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Lancet 2017; 389(10086): 2328-37. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31472-1 PMID: 28612747
  9. Ravelli A, Martini A. Juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Lancet 2007; 369(9563): 767-78. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60363-8 PMID: 17336654
  10. Dedmon LE. The genetics of rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatology 2020; 59(10): 2661-70. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/keaa232 PMID: 32638005
  11. Deighton CM, Walker DJ, Griffiths ID, Roberts DF. The contribution of H LA to rheumatoid arthritis. Clin Genet 1989; 36(3): 178-82. doi: 10.1111/j.1399-0004.1989.tb03185.x PMID: 2676268
  12. Smolen JS, Aletaha D, Koeller M, Weisman MH, Emery P. New therapies for treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Lancet 2007; 370(9602): 1861-74. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60784-3 PMID: 17570481
  13. Hinks A, Bowes J, Cobb J, et al. Fine-mapping the MHC locus in juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) reveals genetic heterogeneity corresponding to distinct adult inflammatory arthritic diseases. Ann Rheum Dis 2017; 76(4): 765-72. doi: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2016-210025 PMID: 27998952
  14. De Silvestri A, Capittini C, Poddighe D, et al. HLA-DRB1 alleles and juvenile idiopathic arthritis: Diagnostic clues emerging from a meta-analysis. Autoimmun Rev 2017; 16(12): 1230-6. doi: 10.1016/j.autrev.2017.10.007 PMID: 29037901
  15. Plenge RM. Rheumatoid arthritis genetics: 2009 update. Curr Rheumatol Rep 2009; 11(5): 351-6. doi: 10.1007/s11926-009-0050-0 PMID: 19772830
  16. Bowes J, Barton A. Recent advances in the genetics of RA susceptibility. Rheumatology 2007; 47(4): 399-402. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/ken005 PMID: 18263596
  17. Coenen MJH, Gregersen PK. Rheumatoid arthritis: A view of the current genetic landscape. Genes Immun 2009; 10(2): 101-11. doi: 10.1038/gene.2008.77 PMID: 18987647
  18. Fang Q, Zhou C, Nandakumar KS. Molecular and cellular pathways contributing to joint damage in rheumatoid arthritis. Mediators Inflamm 2020; 2020: 1-20. doi: 10.1155/2020/3830212 PMID: 32256192
  19. Sabeh F, Fox D, Weiss SJ. Membrane-type I matrix metalloproteinase-dependent regulation of rheumatoid arthritis synoviocyte function. J Immunol 2010; 184(11): 6396-406. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.0904068 PMID: 20483788
  20. van der Heijde DMFM. Joint erosions and patients with early rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatology XXXIV(S2):34(52): 14-8. 74-8. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/XXXIV.suppl_2.74 PMID: 8535653
  21. Visser H, le Cessie S, Vos K, Breedveld FC, Hazes JMW. How to diagnose rheumatoid arthritis early: A prediction model for persistent (erosive) arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 2002; 46(2): 357-65. doi: 10.1002/art.10117 PMID: 11840437
  22. Machold KP, Stamm TA, Nell VPK, et al. Very recent onset rheumatoid arthritis: Clinical and serological patient characteristics associated with radiographic progression over the first years of disease. Rheumatology 2006; 46(2): 342-9. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/kel237 PMID: 16899498
  23. Teitelbaum SL, Ross FP. Genetic regulation of osteoclast development and function. Nat Rev Genet 2003; 4(8): 638-49. doi: 10.1038/nrg1122 PMID: 12897775
  24. Boyle WJ, Simonet WS, Lacey DL. Osteoclast differentiation and activation. Nature 2003; 423(6937): 337-42. doi: 10.1038/nature01658 PMID: 12748652
  25. Fang Q, Ou J, Nandakumar KS. Autoantibodies as diagnostic markers and mediator of joint inflammation in arthritis. Mediators Inflamm 2019; 2019: 6363086. doi: 10.1155/2019/6363086 PMID: 31772505
  26. Wu CY, Yang HY, Lai JH. Anti-citrullinated protein antibodies in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: Biological effects and mechanisms of immunopathogenesis. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21(11): 4015. doi: 10.3390/ijms21114015 PMID: 32512739
  27. Kastbom A, Strandberg G, Lindroos A, Skogh T. Anti-CCP antibody test predicts the disease course during 3 years in early rheumatoid arthritis (the Swedish TIRA project). Ann Rheum Dis 2004; 63(9): 1085-9. doi: 10.1136/ard.2003.016808 PMID: 15308517
  28. Meyer O, Labarre C, Dougados M, et al. Anticitrullinated protein/peptide antibody assays in early rheumatoid arthritis for predicting five year radiographic damage. Ann Rheum Dis 2003; 62(2): 120-6. doi: 10.1136/ard.62.2.120 PMID: 12525380
  29. Shi J, Knevel R, Suwannalai P, et al. Autoantibodies recognizing carbamylated proteins are present in sera of patients with rheumatoid arthritis and predict joint damage. Proc Natl Acad Sci 2011; 108(42): 17372-7. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1114465108 PMID: 21987802
  30. Szekanecz Z, Pakozdi A, Szentpetery A, Besenyei T, Koch AE. Chemokines and angiogenesis in rheumatoid arthritis. Front Biosci 2009; 1(1): 44-51. PMID: 19482623
  31. Polzer K, Baeten D, Soleiman A, et al. Tumour necrosis factor blockade increases lymphangiogenesis in murine and human arthritic joints. Ann Rheum Dis 2008; 67(11): 1610-6. doi: 10.1136/ard.2007.083394 PMID: 18174217
  32. Cornish AL, Campbell IK, McKenzie BS, Chatfield S, Wicks IP G-CSF. and GM-CSF as therapeutic targets in rheumatoid arthritis. Nat Rev Rheumatol 2009; 5(10): 554-9. doi: 10.1038/nrrheum.2009.178 PMID: 19798030
  33. Haringman JJ, Gerlag DM, Zwinderman AH, et al. Synovial tissue macrophages: A sensitive biomarker for response to treatment in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2005; 64(6): 834-8. doi: 10.1136/ard.2004.029751 PMID: 15576415
  34. Liew FY, McInnes IB. The role of innate mediators in inflammatory response. Mol Immunol 2002; 38(12-13): 887-90. doi: 10.1016/S0161-5890(02)00014-7 PMID: 12009565
  35. Blüml S, Bonelli M, Niederreiter B, et al. Essential role of microRNA-155 in the pathogenesis of autoimmune arthritis in mice. Arthritis Rheum 2011; 63(5): 1281-8. doi: 10.1002/art.30281 PMID: 21321928
  36. Kurowska-Stolarska M, Alivernini S, Ballantine LE, et al. microRNA-155 as a proinflammatory regulator in clinical and experimental arthritis. Proc Natl Acad Sci 2011; 108(27): 11193-8. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1019536108 PMID: 21690378
  37. Raza K, Falciani F, Curnow SJ, et al. Early rheumatoid arthritis is characterized by a distinct and transient synovial fluid cytokine profile of T cell and stromal cell origin. Arthritis Res Ther 2005; 7(4): R784-95. doi: 10.1186/ar1733 PMID: 15987480
  38. Feldmann M, Brennan FM, Maini RN. Rheumatoid arthritis. Cell 1996; 85(3): 307-10. doi: 10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81109-5 PMID: 8616886
  39. Hess A, Axmann R, Rech J, et al. Blockade of TNF-α rapidly inhibits pain responses in the central nervous system. Proc Natl Acad Sci 2011; 108(9): 3731-6. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1011774108 PMID: 21245297
  40. McInnes IB, Schett G. Cytokines in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis. Nat Rev Immunol 2007; 7(6): 429-42. doi: 10.1038/nri2094 PMID: 17525752
  41. Brennan FM, McInnes IB. Evidence that cytokines play a role in rheumatoid arthritis. J Clin Invest 2008; 118(11): 3537-45. doi: 10.1172/JCI36389 PMID: 18982160
  42. Heo R, Park JS, Jang HJ, et al. Hyaluronan nanoparticles bearing γ-secretase inhibitor: In vivo therapeutic effects on rheumatoid arthritis. J Control Release 2014; 192: 295-300. doi: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2014.07.057 PMID: 25109660
  43. Niki Y, Takeuchi T, Nakayama M, et al. Clinical significance of cartilage biomarkers for monitoring structural joint damage in rheumatoid arthritis patients treated with anti-TNF therapy. PLoS One 2012; 7(5): e37447. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0037447 PMID: 22629396
  44. Bullock J, Rizvi SAA, Saleh AM, et al. Rheumatoid arthritis: A brief overview of the treatment. Med Princ Pract 2018; 27(6): 501-7. doi: 10.1159/000493390 PMID: 30173215
  45. Sarzi-Puttini P, Salaffi F, Di Franco M, et al. Pain in rheumatoid arthritis: A critical review. Reumatismo 2014; 66(1): 18-27. doi: 10.4081/reumatismo.2014.760 PMID: 24938192
  46. Simponi 50 mg solution for injection in pre-filled pen summary of product characteristics, 2009 Leiden, The Netherlands Centocor B.V. 2009. Available from : https://ec.europa.eu/health/documents/community-register/2009/2009100163275/anx_63275_en.pdf
  47. Smolen JS, Landewé R, Breedveld FC, et al. EULAR recommendations for the management of rheumatoid arthritis with synthetic and biological disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs. Ann Rheum Dis 2010; 69(6): 964-75. doi: 10.1136/ard.2009.126532 PMID: 20444750
  48. Deal CL, Schnitzer TJ, Lipstein E, et al. Treatment of arthritis with topical capsaicin: A double-blind trial. Clin Ther 1991; 13(3): 383-95. PMID: 1954640
  49. Ogawa S, Satoh J, Arakawa A, Yoshiyama T, Suzuki M. Pregabalin treatment for peripheral neuropathic pain: A review of safety data from randomized controlled trials conducted in Japan and in the west. Drug Saf 2012; 35(10): 793-806. doi: 10.1007/BF03261976 PMID: 22967187
  50. Siler AC, Gardner H, Yanit K, Cushman T, McDonagh M. Systematic review of the comparative effectiveness of antiepileptic drugs for fibromyalgia. J Pain 2011; 12(4): 407-15. doi: 10.1016/j.jpain.2010.09.007 PMID: 21146466
  51. Boers M, Verhoeven AC, Markusse HM, et al. Randomised comparison of combined step-down prednisolone, methotrexate and sulphasalazine with sulphasalazine alone in early rheumatoid arthritis. Lancet 1997; 350(9074): 309-18. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(97)01300-7 PMID: 9251634
  52. Steiman AJ, Pope JE, Thiessen-Philbrook H, et al. Non-biologic disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs) improve pain in inflammatory arthritis (IA): A systematic literature review of randomized controlled trials. Rheumatol Int 2013; 33(5): 1105-20. doi: 10.1007/s00296-012-2619-6 PMID: 23292213
  53. Prakken B, Albani S, Martini A. Juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Lancet 2011; 377(9783): 2138-49. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60244-4 PMID: 21684384
  54. Petty RE, Laxer RM, Wedderburn LR. juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis In: Petty RE, Laxer RM, Lindsley CB, Wedderburn LR, Eds Textbook of pediatric rheumatology. (7th ed.). Elsevier Philadelphia 2016; pp. 188-204. e6.. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-323-24145-8.00015-6
  55. Ringold S, Weiss PF, Beukelman T, et al. American College of Rheumatology. 2013 update of the 2011 American College of Rheumatology recommendations for the treatment of juvenile idiopathic arthritis: recommendations for the medical therapy of children with systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis and tuberculosis screening among children receiving biologic medications. Arthritis Care Res 2013; 65(10): 1551-63. doi: 10.1002/acr.22087 PMID: 24078300
  56. Smolen JS, Landewé R, Breedveld FC, et al. EULAR recommendations for the management of rheumatoid arthritis with synthetic and biological disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs: 2013 update. Ann Rheum Dis 2014; 73(3): 492-509. doi: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2013-204573 PMID: 24161836
  57. Brown PM, Pratt AG, Isaacs JD. Mechanism of action of methotrexate in rheumatoid arthritis, and the search for biomarkers. Nat Rev Rheumatol 2016; 12(12): 731-42. doi: 10.1038/nrrheum.2016.175 PMID: 27784891
  58. Forrest CM, Harman G, McMillan RB, Stoy N, Stone TW, Darlington LG. Modulation of cytokine release by purine receptors in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Clin Exp Rheumatol 2005; 23(1): 89-92. PMID: 15789893
  59. Herrmann ML, Schleyerbach R, Kirschbaum BJ. Leflunomide: An immunomodulatory drug for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis and other autoimmune diseases. Immunopharmacology 2000; 47(2-3): 273-89. doi: 10.1016/S0162-3109(00)00191-0 PMID: 10878294
  60. Strand V, Cohen S, Schiff M, et al. Treatment of active rheumatoid arthritis with leflunomide compared with placebo and methotrexate. Arch Intern Med 1999; 159(21): 2542-50. doi: 10.1001/archinte.159.21.2542 PMID: 10573044
  61. Smolen JS, Kalden JR, Scott DL, et al. Efficacy and safety of leflunomide compared with placebo and sulphasalazine in active rheumatoid arthritis: A double-blind, randomised, multicentre trial. Lancet 1999; 353(9149): 259-66. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(98)09403-3 PMID: 9929017
  62. Lee CK, Lee EY, Chung SM, Mun SH, Yoo B, Moon HB. Effects of disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs and antiinflammatory cytokines on human osteoclastogenesis through interaction with receptor activator of nuclear factor? B, osteoprotegerin, and receptor activator of nuclear factor? B ligand. Arthritis Rheum 2004; 50(12): 3831-43. doi: 10.1002/art.20637 PMID: 15593184
  63. Rodenburg RJT, Ganga A, Van Lent PLEM, Van De Putte LBA, Van Venrooij WJ. The antiinflammatory drug sulfasalazine inhibits tumor necrosis factor α expression in macrophages by inducing apoptosis. Arthritis Rheum 2000; 43(9): 1941-50. doi: 10.1002/1529-0131(200009)43:93.0.CO;2-O PMID: 11014343
  64. Hirohata S, Ohshima N, Yanagida T, Aramaki K. Regulation of human B cell function by sulfasalazine and its metabolites. Int Immunopharmacol 2002; 2(5): 631-40. doi: 10.1016/S1567-5769(01)00186-2 PMID: 12013503
  65. Guo Q, Wang Y, Xu D, Nossent J, Pavlos NJ, Xu J. Rheumatoid arthritis: Pathological mechanisms and modern pharmacologic therapies. Bone Res 2018; 6(1): 15. doi: 10.1038/s41413-018-0016-9 PMID: 29736302
  66. Linares V, Alonso V, Domingo JL. Oxidative stress as a mechanism underlying sulfasalazine-induced toxicity. Expert Opin Drug Saf 2011; 10(2): 253-63. doi: 10.1517/14740338.2011.529898 PMID: 21219240
  67. Volin MV, Campbell PL, Connors MA, Woodruff DC, Koch AE. The effect of sulfasalazine on rheumatoid arthritic synovial tissue chemokine production. Exp Mol Pathol 2002; 73(2): 84-92. doi: 10.1006/exmp.2002.2460 PMID: 12231210
  68. Sames E, Paterson H, Li C. Hydroxychloroquine-induced agranulocytosis in a patient with long-term rheumatoid arthritis. Eur J Rheumatol 2016; 3(2): 91-2. doi: 10.5152/eurjrheum.2015.0028 PMID: 27708979
  69. Rainsford KD, Parke AL, Clifford-Rashotte M, Kean WF. Therapy and pharmacological properties of hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine in treatment of systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis and related diseases. Inflammopharmacology 2015; 23(5): 231-69. doi: 10.1007/s10787-015-0239-y PMID: 26246395
  70. Kumar P, Banik S. Pharmacotherapy options in rheumatoid arthritis. Clin Med Insights Arthrit Musculoskelet Disord 2013; 6: CMAMD.S5558. doi: 10.4137/CMAMD.S5558 PMID: 23997576
  71. Parameswaran N, Patial S. Tumor necrosis factor-α signaling in macrophages. Crit Rev Eukaryot Gene Expr 2010; 20(2): 87-103. doi: 10.1615/CritRevEukarGeneExpr.v20.i2.10 PMID: 21133840
  72. Dulai R, Perry M, Twycross-Lewis R, Morrissey D, Atzeni F, Greenwald S. The effect of tumor necrosis factor-α antagonists on arterial stiffness in rheumatoid arthritis: A literature review. Semin Arthritis Rheum 2012; 42(1): 1-8. doi: 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2012.02.002 PMID: 22475245
  73. Low ASL, Symmons DPM, Lunt M, et al. Relationship between exposure to tumour necrosis factor inhibitor therapy and incidence and severity of myocardial infarction in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2017; 76(4): 654-60. doi: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2016-209784 PMID: 28073800
  74. Consolaro A, Giancane G, Schiappapietra B, et al. Clinical outcome measures in juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Pediatr Rheumatol Online J 2016; 14(1): 23. doi: 10.1186/s12969-016-0085-5 PMID: 27089922
  75. Walters HM, Pan N, Lehman TJA, et al. The impact of disease activity and tumour necrosis factor-α inhibitor therapy on cytokine levels in juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Clin Exp Immunol 2016; 184(3): 308-17. doi: 10.1111/cei.12782 PMID: 26934060
  76. Scott DL, Kingsley GH. Tumor necrosis factor inhibitors for rheumatoid arthritis. N Engl J Med 2006; 355(7): 704-12. doi: 10.1056/NEJMct055183 PMID: 16914706
  77. Emery P. Infliximab: A new treatment for rheumatoid arthritis. Hosp Med 2001; 62(3): 150-2. doi: 10.12968/hosp.2001.62.3.1534 PMID: 11291464
  78. Moreland LW. Recent advances in anti-tumour necrosis factor (TNF) therapy in rheumatoid arthritis: Focus on the soluble TNF receptor p75 fusion protein, etanercept. BioDrugs 1999; 11(3): 201-10. doi: 10.2165/00063030-199911030-00006 PMID: 18031130
  79. Enbrel® (etanercept) for subcutaneous injection prescribing information ,2009 Thousand Oaks, CA,USA Amgen Inc. and Wyeth Pharmaceuticals. 2009. Available from: https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2008/enbrel_pi.pdf
  80. Humira (adalimumab) injection, solution prescribinginformation, 2009 North Chicago, IL, USA Abbott Laboratories. 2009. Available from: https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2009/125057s196lbl.pdf
  81. Kay J, Matteson EL, Dasgupta B, et al. Golimumab in patients with active rheumatoid arthritis despite treatment with methotrexate: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, dose-ranging study. Arthritis Rheum 2008; 58(4): 964-75. doi: 10.1002/art.23383 PMID: 18383539
  82. Fleischmann R, Vencovsky J, van Vollenhoven RF, et al. Efficacy and safety of certolizumab pegol monotherapy every 4 weeks in patients with rheumatoid arthritis failing previous disease-modifying antirheumatic therapy: The FAST4WARD study. Ann Rheum Dis 2009; 68(6): 805-11. doi: 10.1136/ard.2008.099291 PMID: 19015206
  83. Cimzia 200 mg solution for injection summary of prescribing information, 2009 Brussels, Belgium UCB, Inc. 2009. Available from : https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/product-information/cimzia-epar-product-information_en.pdf
  84. Boissier MC. Cell and cytokine imbalances in rheumatoid synovitis. Joint Bone Spine 2011; 78(3): 230-4. doi: 10.1016/j.jbspin.2010.08.017 PMID: 20961791
  85. Liu X, Jones GW, Choy EH, Jones SA. The biology behind interleukin-6 targeted interventions. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2016; 28(2): 152-60. doi: 10.1097/BOR.0000000000000255 PMID: 26751841
  86. Poddighe D, Romano M, Gattinara M, Gerloni V. Biologics for the treatment of juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Curr Med Chem 2019; 25(42): 5860-93. doi: 10.2174/0929867325666180522085716 PMID: 29788871
  87. De Benedetti F, Schneider R. Systemic Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis. In: Textbook of Pediatric Rheumatology. (7th ed..). Elsevier Inc.Philadelphia, 2016; pp. 205-15. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-323-24145-8.00016-8
  88. Ogilvie EM, Khan A, Hubank M, Kellam P, Woo P. Specific gene expression profiles in systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 2007; 56(6): 1954-65. doi: 10.1002/art.22644 PMID: 17530721
  89. Hahn M, Frey S, Hueber AJ. The novel interleukin-1 cytokine family members in inflammatory diseases. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2017; 29(2): 208-13. doi: 10.1097/BOR.0000000000000361 PMID: 27926540
  90. Di Paolo NC, Shayakhmetov DM. Interleukin 1α and the inflammatory process. Nat Immunol 2016; 17(8): 906-13. doi: 10.1038/ni.3503 PMID: 27434011
  91. Vanoni F, Minoia F, Malattia C. Biologics in juvenile idiopathic arthritis: A narrative review. Eur J Pediatr 2017; 176(9): 1147-53. doi: 10.1007/s00431-017-2960-6 PMID: 28725955
  92. Thaler K, Chandiramani DV, Hansen R, Gartlehner G. Efficacy and safety of anakinra for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis: An update of the oregon drug effectiveness review project. Biologics 2009; 3: 485-98. doi: 10.2147/BTT.S3579 PMID: 20054439
  93. Lee YH, Bae SC, Song GG. The efficacy and safety of rituximab for the treatment of active rheumatoid arthritis: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Rheumatol Int 2011; 31(11): 1493-9. doi: 10.1007/s00296-010-1526-y PMID: 20473756
  94. Ruth NM, Passo MH. Juvenile idiopathic arthritis: Management and therapeutic options. Ther Adv Musculoskelet Dis 2012; 4(2): 99-110. doi: 10.1177/1759720X11413630 PMID: 22870498
  95. Ilowite NT, Laxer RM. Pharmacology: Biologics. In: Textbook of Pediatric Rheumatology. (7th ed.). Elsevier Inc. 2016: Philadelphia; 2016; pp. 161-75. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-323-24145-8.00013-2
  96. Diak P, Siegel J, La Grenade L, Choi L, Lemery S, McMahon A. Tumor necrosis factor α blockers and malignancy in children: Forty-eight cases reported to the food and drug administration. Arthritis Rheum 2010; 62(8): 2517-24. doi: 10.1002/art.27511 PMID: 20506368
  97. Ruperto N, Martini A. Juvenile idiopathic arthritis and malignancy. Rheumatology 2014; 53(6): 968-74. doi: 10.1093/rheumatology/ket318 PMID: 24185766
  98. Iwata S, Tanaka Y. Progress in understanding the safety and efficacy of Janus kinase inhibitors for treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 2016; 12(10): 1047-57. doi: 10.1080/1744666X.2016.1189826 PMID: 27253519
  99. Venkatesha S, Dudics S, Acharya B, Moudgil K. Cytokine-modulating strategies and newer cytokine targets for arthritis therapy. Int J Mol Sci 2014; 16(1): 887-906. doi: 10.3390/ijms16010887 PMID: 25561237
  100. Ho CTK, Mok CC, Cheung TT, Kwok KY, Yip RML. Management of rheumatoid arthritis: 2019 updated consensus recommendations from the Hong Kong Society of Rheumatology. Clin Rheumatol 2019; 38(12): 3331-50. doi: 10.1007/s10067-019-04761-5 PMID: 31485846
  101. Tofacitinib: Summary of Product characteristics. Available from : http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/EPAR_-_Product_Information/human/004214/WC500224911.pdf
  102. Migita K, Koga T, Komori A, et al. Influence of Janus kinase inhibition on interleukin 6-mediated induction of acute-phase serum amyloid A in rheumatoid synovium. J Rheumatol 2011; 38(11): 2309-17. doi: 10.3899/jrheum.101362 PMID: 21844139
  103. Dhillon S. Tofacitinib: A review in rheumatoid arthritis. Drugs 2017; 77(18): 1987-2001. doi: 10.1007/s40265-017-0835-9 PMID: 29139090
  104. Taylor PC, Keystone EC, van der Heijde D, et al. Baricitinib versus placebo or adalimumab in rheumatoid arthritis. N Engl J Med 2017; 376(7): 652-62. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1608345 PMID: 28199814
  105. Zerbini CAF, Lomonte ABV. Tofacitinib for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 2012; 8(4): 319-31. doi: 10.1586/eci.12.19 PMID: 22607178
  106. Kremer J, Li ZG, Hall S, et al. Tofacitinib in combination with nonbiologic disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs in patients with active rheumatoid arthritis: A randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 2013; 159(4): 253-61. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-159-4-201308200-00006 PMID: 24026258
  107. Smolen JS, Breedveld FC, Burmester GR, et al. Treating rheumatoid arthritis to target: 2014 update of the recommendations of an international task force. Ann Rheum Dis 2016; 75(1): 3-15. doi: 10.1136/annrheumdis-2015-207524 PMID: 25969430

Supplementary files

Supplementary Files
Action
1. JATS XML
Download

Copyright (c) 2024 Bentham Science Publishers